Unraveling microforging principle during in situ shot-peening-assisted cold spray additive manufacturing aluminum alloy through a multi-physics framework

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where DE(P), DE(P + S), and ηe represent the individual DE dissipated

through the overall extreme deformation of a single AA6061 micro­

particle (≈ 3.2 × 104 nJ), the total DE dissipated by the AA6061

microparticle and substrate (≈ 2.8 × 106 nJ), and the deposition effi­

ciency of AA6061 microparticles (≈ 40 %), respectively. Therefore, Ømin

is estimated to be 69.60 vol%. Its high agreement with the actual one

(70 vol%) further confirms the validity of simulations. More impor­

tantly, the microforging principle during in situ shot-peening-assisted

CSAM is fully unraveled with the help of simulations, demonstrating

the model’s potential to guide process optimization.

6. Conclusions

Fully dense AA6061 deposits with uniform ultra-fine grains were

fabricated by in situ shot-peening-assisted CSAM using low-cost

renewable nitrogen gas and recyclable large-size SS410 particles. A

multi-physics framework using dislocation dynamics was developed to

identify its similarities and differences with conventional CSAM to un­

ravel the microforging principle. Simulations were fully validated by

comparing the model-reproduced and experimental deformations, grain

refinement, microhardness increase, and volume ratio of large-size

SS410 particles required to achieve full densification of the deposit. In

situ shot-peening particles, despite having half the Vi of deposited mi­

croparticles, deliver two orders of magnitude higher KE. The enormous

KE allows overall extreme deformation accompanied by overall grain

refinement of the deposited microparticles, significantly improving

microhardness and tensile strength. This work can provide scientific

guidelines for high-quality and low-cost CSAM of high-strength Al al­

loys, contributing to SDGs and carbon neutrality. What is more, the

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