[1] C. Körner, Additive manufacturing of metallic components by selective electron beam melting — a review, International Materials Reviews. 61 (2016) 361–377. doi:10.1080/09506608.2016.1176289.
[2] M. Galati, L. Iuliano, A literature review of powder-based electron beam melting focusing on numerical simulations, Additive Manufacturing. 19 (2018) 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2017.11.001.
[3] P.K. Gokuldoss, S. Kolla, J. Eckert, Additive manufacturing processes: Selective laser melting, electron beam melting and binder jetting-selection guidelines, Materials. 10 (2017) 672. doi:10.3390/ma10060672.
[4] M. Galati, L. Iuliano, A. Salmi, E. Atzeni, Modelling energy source and powder properties for the development of a thermal FE model of the EBM additive manufacturing process, Additive Manufacturing. 14 (2017) 49–59. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2017.01.001.
[5] M.S. Brown, C.B. Arnold, Fundamentals of Laser-Material Interaction and Application to Multiscale Surface Modification, in: Springer Series in Materials Science, Springer Verlag, 2010: pp. 91–120. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-10523-4_4.
[6] C. Körner, A. Bauereiß, E. Attar, Fundamental consolidation mechanisms during selective beam melting of powders, Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering. 21 (2013) 085011. doi:10.1088/0965-0393/21/8/085011.
[7] H. Gong, K. Rafi, H. Gu, G.D. Janaki Ram, T. Starr, B. Stucker, Influence of defects on mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V components produced by selective laser melting and electron beam melting, Materials and Design. 86 (2015) 545–554. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.07.147.
[8] Y.J. Liu, S.J. Li, H.L. Wang, W.T. Hou, Y.L. Hao, R. Yang, T.B. Sercombe, L.C. Zhang, Microstructure, defects and mechanical behavior of beta-type titanium porous structures manufactured by electron beam melting and selective laser melting, Acta Materialia. 113 (2016) 56–67. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.04.029.
[9] D. Greitemeier, F. Palm, F. Syassen, T. Melz, Fatigue performance of additive manufactured TiAl6V4 using electron and laser beam melting, International Journal of Fatigue. 94 (2017) 211–217. doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.05.001.
[10] H. Wang, B. Zhao, C. Liu, C. Wang, X. Tan, M. Hu, A Comparison of Biocompatibility of a Titanium Alloy Fabricated by Electron Beam Melting and Selective Laser Melting, PLOS ONE. 11 (2016) e0158513. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158513.
[11] B. Zhao, H. Wang, N. Qiao, C. Wang, M. Hu, Corrosion resistance characteristics of a Ti-6Al- 4V alloy scaffold that is fabricated by electron beam melting and selective laser melting for implantation in vivo, Materials Science and Engineering C. 70 (2017) 832–841. doi:10.1016/j.msec.2016.07.045.
[12] H. Gong, K. Rafi, H. Gu, T. Starr, B. Stucker, Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes, Additive Manufacturing. 1 (2014) 87–98. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2014.08.002.
[13] C. Qiu, C. Panwisawas, M. Ward, H.C. Basoalto, J.W. Brooks, M.M. Attallah, On the role of melt flow into the surface structure and porosity development during selective laser melting, Acta Materialia. 96 (2015) 72–79. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2015.06.004.
[14] D. Gu, M. Xia, D. Dai, On the role of powder flow behavior in fluid thermodynamics and laser processability of Ni-based composites by selective laser melting, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture. 137 (2019) 67–78. doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2018.10.006.
[15] Y. Zhao, Y. Koizumi, K. Aoyagi, K. Yamanaka, A. Chiba, Manipulating local heat accumulation towards controlled quality and microstructure of a Co-Cr-Mo alloy in powder bed fusion with electron beam, Materials Letters. 254 (2019) 269–272. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2019.07.078.
[16] Y.S. Lee, M.M. Kirka, J. Ferguson, V.C. Paquit, Correlations of cracking with scan strategy and build geometry in electron beam powder bed additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing. 32 (2020) 101031. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2019.101031.
[17] L. Scime, J. Beuth, Melt pool geometry and morphology variability for the Inconel 718 alloy in a laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing process, Additive Manufacturing. 29 (2019) 100830. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2019.100830.
[18] C.L.A. Leung, S. Marussi, R.C. Atwood, M. Towrie, P.J. Withers, P.D. Lee, In situ X-ray imaging of defect and molten pool dynamics in laser additive manufacturing, Nature Communications. 9 (2018) 1–9. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03734-7.
[19] H. Wong, D. Neary, E. Jones, P. Fox, C. Sutcliffe, Pilot feedback electronic imaging at elevated temperatures and its potential for in-process electron beam melting monitoring, Additive Manufacturing. 27 (2019) 185–198. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.022.
[20] C.L.A. Leung, S. Marussi, M. Towrie, J. del Val Garcia, R.C. Atwood, A.J. Bodey, J.R. Jones, P.J. Withers, P.D. Lee, Laser-matter interactions in additive manufacturing of stainless steel SS316L and 13-93 bioactive glass revealed by in situ X-ray imaging, Additive Manufacturing. 24 (2018) 647–657. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2018.08.025.
[21] Z. Gan, G. Yu, X. He, S. Li, Surface-active element transport and its effect on liquid metal flow in laser-assisted additive manufacturing, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer. 86 (2017) 206–214. doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2017.06.007.
[22] H. Salem, L.N. Carter, M.M. Attallah, H.G. Salem, Influence of processing parameters on internal porosity and types of defects formed in Ti6Al4V lattice structure fabricated by selective laser melting, Materials Science and Engineering A. 767 (2019) 138387. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2019.138387.
[23] Y. Yang, D. Gu, D. Dai, C. Ma, Laser energy absorption behavior of powder particles using ray tracing method during selective laser melting additive manufacturing of aluminum alloy, Materials and Design. 143 (2018) 12–19. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2018.01.043.
[24] M. Bayat, A. Thanki, S. Mohanty, A. Witvrouw, S. Yang, J. Thorborg, N.S. Tiedje, J.H. Hattel, Keyhole-induced porosities in Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) of Ti6Al4V: High-fidelity modelling and experimental validation, Additive Manufacturing. 30 (2019) 100835. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2019.100835.
[25] A. Bauereiß, T. Scharowsky, C. Körner, Defect generation and propagation mechanism during additive manufacturing by selective beam melting, Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 214 (2014) 2522–2528. doi:10.1016/J.JMATPROTEC.2014.05.002.
[26] A. Klassen, V.E. Forster, V. Juechter, C. Körner, Numerical simulation of multi-component evaporation during selective electron beam melting of TiAl, Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 247 (2017) 280–288. doi:10.1016/J.JMATPROTEC.2017.04.016.
[27] W. Yan, W. Ge, J. Smith, S. Lin, O.L. Kafka, F. Lin, W.K. Liu, Multi-scale modeling of electron beam melting of functionally graded materials, Acta Materialia. 115 (2016) 403–412. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.06.022.
[28] W. Yan, Y. Qian, W. Ge, S. Lin, W.K. Liu, F. Lin, G.J. Wagner, Meso-scale modeling of multiple-layer fabrication process in Selective Electron Beam Melting: Inter-layer/track voids formation, Materials & Design. 141 (2018) 210–219. doi:10.1016/J.MATDES.2017.12.031.
[29] S.A. Khairallah, A.T. Anderson, A. Rubenchik, W.E. King, Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: Physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones, Acta Materialia. 108 (2016) 36–45. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014.
[30] M.J. Matthews, G. Guss, S.A. Khairallah, A.M. Rubenchik, P.J. Depond, W.E. King, Denudation of metal powder layers in laser powder bed fusion processes, Acta Materialia. 114 (2016) 33–42. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.05.017.
[31] J.J.S. Dilip, S. Zhang, C. Teng, K. Zeng, C. Robinson, D. Pal, B. Stucker, Influence of processing parameters on the evolution of melt pool, porosity, and microstructures in Ti-6Al- 4V alloy parts fabricated by selective laser melting, Progress in Additive Manufacturing. 2 (2017) 157–167. doi:10.1007/s40964-017-0030-2.
[32] J. Gockel, J. Beuth, K. Taminger, Integrated control of solidification microstructure and melt pool dimensions in electron beam wire feed additive manufacturing of ti-6al-4v, Additive Manufacturing. 1 (2014) 119–126. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2014.09.004.
[33] X. Ding, Y. Koizumi, D. Wei, A. Chiba, Effect of process parameters on melt pool geometry and microstructure development for electron beam melting of IN718: A systematic single bead analysis study, Additive Manufacturing. 26 (2019) 215–226. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.018.
[34] M. Galati, A. Snis, L. Iuliano, Experimental validation of a numerical thermal model of the EBM process for Ti6Al4V, Computers and Mathematics with Applications. 78 (2019) 2417– 2427. doi:10.1016/j.camwa.2018.07.020.
[35] GE, Arcam EBM A2X - EBM Machine| GE Additive, (n.d.). https://www.ge.com/additive/additive-manufacturing/machines/ebm-machines/arcam-ebm- a2x (accessed June 2, 2020).
[36] ConceptLaser, Concept Laser M2 cusing, (n.d.). http://www.4c.com.tr/en/m2-cusing.html (accessed June 2, 2020).
[37] M. Galati, P. Minetola, G. Rizza, Surface roughness characterisation and analysis of the Electron Beam Melting (EBM) process, Materials. 12 (2019). doi:10.3390/ma12132211.
[38] FLOW-3D® Version 11.2 [Computer software]. (2017). Santa Fe, NM: Flow Science, Inc. https://www.flow3d.com.
[39] Y.S. Lee, W. Zhang, Modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow and solidification microstructure of nickel-base superalloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, Additive Manufacturing. 12 (2016) 178–188. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2016.05.003.
[40] H. Wang, Y. Zou, Microscale interaction between laser and metal powder in powder-bed additive manufacturing: Conduction mode versus keyhole mode, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 142 (2019). doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118473.
[41] S.A. Khairallah, A. Anderson, A.M. Rubenchik, J. Florando, S. Wu, H. Lowdermilk, Simulation of the main physical processes in remote laser penetration with large laser spot size, AIP Advances. 5 (2015) 047120. doi:10.1063/1.4918284.
[42] J. Schou, Risø, Laser-beam interactions with materials: Physical principles and applications, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms. 124 (1997) 647–648. doi:10.1016/S0168-583X(97)00111-0.
[43] N. Shen, K. Chou, Thermal modeling of electron beam additive manufacturing process - Powder sintering effects, in: ASME 2012 International Manufacturing Science and Engineering Conference Collocated with the 40th North American Manufacturing Research Conference and in Participation with the Int. Conf., MSEC 2012, 2012: pp. 287–295. doi:10.1115/MSEC2012-7253.
[44] J.H. Cho, S.J. Na, Implementation of real-time multiple reflection and Fresnel absorption of laser beam in keyhole, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 39 (2006) 5372–5378. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/39/24/039.
[45] H.E. Cline, T.R. Anthony, Heat treating and melting material with a scanning laser or electron beam, Journal of Applied Physics. 48 (1977) 3895–3900. doi:10.1063/1.324261.
[46] P. Bidare, I. Bitharas, R.M. Ward, M.M. Attallah, A.J. Moore, Fluid and particle dynamics in laser powder bed fusion, Acta Materialia. 142 (2018) 107–120. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2017.09.051.
[47] D. Wang, S. Wu, F. Fu, S. Mai, Y. Yang, Y. Liu, C. Song, Mechanisms and characteristics of spatter generation in SLM processing and its effect on the properties, Materials and Design. 117 (2017) 121–130. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2016.12.060.
[48] S.A. Khairallah, A.A. Martin, J.R.I. Lee, G. Guss, N.P. Calta, J.A. Hammons, M.H. Nielsen, K. Chaput, E. Schwalbach, M.N. Shah, M.G. Chapman, T.M. Willey, A.M. Rubenchik, A.T. Anderson, Y.M. Wang, M.J. Matthews, W.E. King, Controlling interdependent meso- nanosecond dynamics and defect generation in metal 3D printing, Science. 368 (2020) 660– 665. doi:10.1126/science.aay7830.
[49] X. Chen, H. Tian, Z. Yan, X. Zhi, J. Zhang, Z. Yuan, Investigation on mechanism of surface tension on morphology of melt track in selective laser melting processing, Applied Physics A: Materials Science and Processing. 124 (2018) 1–7. doi:10.1007/s00339-018-2102-7.
[50] M.F. Zäh, S. Lutzmann, Modelling and simulation of electron beam melting, Production Engineering. 4 (2010) 15–23. doi:10.1007/s11740-009-0197-6.
[51] C.D. Boley, S.A. Khairallah, A.M. Rubenchik, Calculation of laser absorption by metal powders in additive manufacturing, Applied Optics. 54 (2015) 2477. doi:10.1364/ao.54.002477.
[52] C.L.A. Leung, R. Tosi, E. Muzangaza, S. Nonni, P.J. Withers, P.D. Lee, Effect of preheating on the thermal, microstructural and mechanical properties of selective electron beam melted Ti-6Al-4V components, Materials and Design. 174 (2019). doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2019.107792.
[53] A.M. Kiss, A.Y. Fong, N.P. Calta, V. Thampy, A.A. Martin, P.J. Depond, J. Wang, M.J. Matthews, R.T. Ott, C.J. Tassone, K.H. Stone, M.J. Kramer, A. van Buuren, M.F. Toney, J. Nelson Weker, Laser-Induced Keyhole Defect Dynamics during Metal Additive Manufacturing, Advanced Engineering Materials. 21 (2019) 1900455. doi:10.1002/adem.201900455.
[54] H. Bian, K. Aoyagi, Y. Zhao, C. Maeda, T. Mouri, A. Chiba, Microstructure refinement for superior ductility of Al–Si alloy by electron beam melting, Additive Manufacturing. 32 (2020) 100982. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2019.100982.
[55] K.Q. Le, C. Tang, C.H. Wong, On the study of keyhole-mode melting in selective laser melting process, International Journal of Thermal Sciences. 145 (2019) 105992. doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2019.105992.
[56] Y. Zhao, Y. Koizumi, K. Aoyagi, D. Wei, K. Yamanaka, A. Chiba, Molten pool behavior and effect of fluid flow on solidification conditions in selective electron beam melting (SEBM) of a biomedical Co-Cr-Mo alloy, Additive Manufacturing. 26 (2019) 202–214. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.002.
[57] A. Raghavan, H.L. Wei, T.A. Palmer, T. DebRoy, Heat transfer and fluid flow in additive manufacturing, Journal of Laser Applications. 25 (2013) 052006. doi:10.2351/1.4817788.
[58] P. Bidare, I. Bitharas, R.M. Ward, M.M. Attallah, A.J. Moore, Laser powder bed fusion at sub-atmospheric pressures, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture. 130–131 (2018) 65–72. doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2018.03.007.
[59] N.P. Calta, A.A. Martin, J.A. Hammons, M.H. Nielsen, T.T. Roehling, K. Fezzaa, M.J. Matthews, J.R. Jeffries, T.M. Willey, J.R.I. Lee, Pressure dependence of the laser-metal interaction under laser powder bed fusion conditions probed by in situ X-ray imaging, Additive Manufacturing. 32 (2020). doi:10.1016/j.addma.2020.101084.
[60] B. Zhou, J. Zhou, H. Li, F. Lin, A study of the microstructures and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V fabricated by SLM under vacuum, Materials Science and Engineering A. 724 (2018) 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2018.03.021.
[61] A. V. Gusarov, T. Laoui, L. Froyen, V.I. Titov, Contact thermal conductivity of a powder bed in selective laser sintering, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 46 (2003) 1103– 1109. doi:10.1016/S0017-9310(02)00370-8.
[62] R. Mertens, S. Dadbakhsh, J. Van Humbeeck, J.P. Kruth, Application of base plate preheating during selective laser melting, in: Procedia CIRP, Elsevier B.V., 2018: pp. 5–11. doi:10.1016/j.procir.2018.08.002.
[63] A. Iveković, M.L. Montero-Sistiaga, K. Vanmeensel, J.P. Kruth, J. Vleugels, Effect of processing parameters on microstructure and properties of tungsten heavy alloys fabricated by SLM, International Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials. 82 (2019) 23–30. doi:10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2019.03.020.
[64] I. Yadroitsev, P. Krakhmalev, I. Yadroitsava, S. Johansson, I. Smurov, Energy input effect on morphology and microstructure of selective laser melting single track from metallic powder, Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 213 (2013) 606–613. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2012.11.014.
[65] M. Malỳ, C. Höller, M. Skalon, B. Meier, D. Koutnỳ, R. Pichler, C. Sommitsch, D. Paloušek, Effect of process parameters and high-temperature preheating on residual stress and relative density of Ti6Al4V processed by selective laser melting, Materials. 16 (2019). doi:10.3390/ma12060930.
[66] CarTech, CarTech® BioDur® CCM® Alloy, (n.d.). http://cartech.ides.com/datasheet.aspx?i=101&E=8 (accessed June 2, 2020).
[67] J.J. Valencia, Thermophysical Properties Sources and Availability of Reliable Data, (2008). doi:10.1361/asmhba0005240.
[68] J.H. Cho, D.F. Farson, J.O. Milewski, K.J. Hollis, Weld pool flows during initial stages of keyhole formation in laser welding, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 42 (2009) 175502. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/42/17/175502.