Alhassan, A., Pumidonming, W., Okamura, M., Hirata, H., Battsetseg, B., Fujisaki, K., Yokoyama, N., Igarashi, I., 2005. Development of a single-round and multiplex PCR method for the simultaneous detection of Babesia caballi and Babesia equi in horse blood. Vet. Parasitol. 129, 43–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.12.018
Allsopp, M.T., Lewis, B.D., Penzhorn, B.L., 2007. Molecular evidence for transplacental transmission of Theileria equi from carrier mares to their apparently healthyfoals. Vet. Parasitol. 148, 130–6.
Barcia, J.J., 2007. The Giemsa stain: its history and applications. Int. J. Surg. Pathol. 15, 292–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066896907302239
Bashiruddin, J.B., Cammà, C., Rebêlo, E., 1999. Molecular detection of Babesia equi and Babesia caballi in horse blood by PCR amplification of part of the 16S rRNA gene. Vet. Parasitol. 84, 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017 (99)00049-7
Bishop, R.P., Kappmeyer, L.S., Onzere, C.K., Odongo, D.O., Githaka, N., Sears, K.P., Knowles, D.P., Fry, L.M., 2020. Equid infective Theileria cluster in distinct 18S rRNA gene clades comprising multiple taxa with unusually broad mammalian host ranges. Parasites Vectors 13, 261. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04131-0
Bhoora, R., Buss, P., Guthrie, A.J., Penzhorn, B.L., Collins, N.E., 2010b. Genetic diversity of piroplasms in plains zebra (Equus quagga burchellii) and Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) in South Africa. Vet. Parasitol. 174, 145–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.08.014
Bhoora, R.V., Collins, N.E., Schnittger, L., Troskie, C., Marumo, R., Labuschagne, K., Smith, R.M., Dalton, D.L., Mbizeni, S., 2020. Molecular genotyping and epidemiology of equine piroplasmids in South Africa. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 11, 101358.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.101358
Bhoora, R., Franssen, L., Oosthuizen, M.C., Guthrie, A.J., Zweygarth, E., Penzhorn, B.L., Jongejan, F., Collins, N.E., 2009. Sequence heterogeneity in the 18S rRNA gene within Theileria equi and Babesia caballi from horses in South Africa. Vet. Parasitol. 159, 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.10.004
Bhoora, R., Quan, M., Matjila, P.T., Zweygarth, E., Guthrie, A.J., Collins, N.E., 2010. Sequence heterogeneity in the equi merozoite antigen gene (ema-1) of Theileria equi and development of an ema-1-specific TaqMan MGBTM assay for the detection of T. equi. Vet. Parasitol. 172, 33–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.04.025
Bhoora, R., Quan, M., Zweygarth, E., Guthrie, A.J., Prinsloo, S.A., Collins, N.E., 2010a. Sequence heterogeneity in the gene encoding the rhoptry-associated protein-1 (RAP-1) of Babesia caballi isolates from South Africa. Vet. Parasitol. 169, 279–288.
Campanella, J.J., Bitincka, L., Smalley, J., 2003. MatGAT: An application that generates similarity/identity matrices using protein or DNA sequences. BMC Bioinformatics 4, 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-4-29
Chhabra, S., Ranjan, R., Uppal, S.K., Singla, L.D., 2012. Transplacental transmission of Babesia equi (Theileria equi) from carrier mares to foals. J. Parasit. Dis. 36, 31-33. doi:10.1007/s12639-011-0072-1
Coultous, R.M., McDonald, M., Raftery, A.G., Shiels, B.R., Sutton, D.G.M., Weir, W., 2020. Analysis of Theileria equi diversity in the Gambia using a novel genotyping method. Transbound Emerg. Dis. 67, 1213-1221. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13454
De Sousa, K.C.M., Fernandes, M.P., Herrera, H.M., Freschi, C.R., Machado, R.Z., André, M.R., 2018. Diversity of piroplasmids among wild and domestic mammals and ectoparasites in Pantanal wetland, Brazil. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 9, 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2017.09.010
De Waal, D.T., 1990. The transovarial transmission of Babesia caballi by Hyalomma truncatum. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 57, 99–100.
Felsenstein, J., 1981. Evolutionary trees from DNA sequences: a maximum likelihood approach. J. Mol. Evol. 17, 368–376.
Fritz, D., 2010. A PCR study of piroplasms in 166 dogs and 111 horses in France (March 2006 to March 2008). Parasitol. Res. 106, 1339–1342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-010-1804-3.
Ganguly, S., 2018. Ending the Sri Lankan civil war. Daedalus. 147, 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1162/DAED_a_00475
Hawkins, E., Kock, R., McKeever, D., Gakuya, F., Musyoki, C., Chege, S.M., Mutinda, M., Kariuki, E., Davidson, Z., Low, B., Skilton, R.A., Njahira, M.N., Wamalwa, M., Maina, E., 2015. Prevalence of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi as well as the identification of associated ticks in sympatric grevy’s zebras (Aquus grevyi) and donkeys (Equus africanus asinus) in northern Kenya. J. Wildl. Dis. 51, 137–147. https://doi.org/10.7589/2013-11-316
Houwen, B., 2002. Blood film preparation and staining procedures. Clin. Lab. Med. 22, 1–14. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-2712(03)00064-7
Katoh, K., Misawa, K., Kuma, K., Miyata, T., 2002. MAFFT: a novel method for rapid multiple sequence alignment based on fast Fourier transform. Nucleic Acids Res. 30, 3059–3066. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkf436
Knowles, D.P., Kappmeyer, L.S., Haney, D., Herndon, D.R., Fry, L.M., Munro, J.B., Sears, K., Ueti, M.W., Wise, L.N., Silva, M., Schneider, D.A., Grause, J., White, S.N., Tretina, K., Bishop, R.P., Odongo, D.O., Pelzel-McCluskey, A.M., Scoles, G.A., Mealey, R.H., Silva, J.C., 2018. Discovery of a novel species, Theileria haneyi n. sp., infective to equids, highlights exceptional genomic diversity within the genus Theileria: implications for apicomplexan parasite surveillance. Int. J. Parasitol. 48, 679–690. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.03.010
Kumar, S., Kumar, R., Sugimoto, C., 2009. A perspective of Theileria equi infections in donkeys. Jpn. J. Vet. Res. 56, 171–180.
Kumar, S., Stecher, G., Li, M., Knyaz, C., Tamura, K., 2018. MEGA X: Molecular Evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms. Mol. Biol. Evol. 35, 1547–1549. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msy096
Laus, F., Spaterna, A., Faillace, V., Veronesi, F., Ravagnan, S., Beribé, F., Cerquetella, M., Meligrana, M., Tesei, B., 2015. Clinical investigation on Theileria equi and Babesia caballi infections in Italian donkeys. BMC Vet. Res. 11, 100. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-015- 0411-z
Liu, Q., Meli, M.L., Zhang, Y., Meili, T., Stirn, M., Riond, B., Weibel, B., Hofmann-Lehmann, R., 2016. Sequence heterogeneity in the 18S rRNA gene in Theileria equi from horses presented in Switzerland. Vet. Parasitol. 221, 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.03.003
Liyanaarachchi, D.R., Rajakaruna, R.S., Dikkumbura, A.W., Rajapakse, R.P., 2015. Ticks infesting wild and domestic animals and humans of Sri Lanka with new host records. Acta trop. 142, 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.11.001
Liyanage, J., 2014. Donkey management and welfare strategy: Mannar 2012–2022. Bridging Lanka, Kirulapone, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka, and the donkey sanctuary, Sidmouth, Devon, United Kingdom.
Manna, G., Cersini, A., Nardini, R., Bartolomé Del Pino, L.E., Antognetti, V., Zini, M., Conti, R., Lorenzetti, R., Veneziano, V., Autorino, G.L., Scicluna, M.T., 2018. Genetic diversity of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi infecting horses of Central-Southern Italy and preliminary results of its correlation with clinical and serological status. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 9, 1212–1220. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.05.005
Matjila, P.T., Leisewitz, A.L., Oosthuizen, M.C., Jongejan, F., Penzhorn, B.L., 2008. Detection of a Theileria species in dogs in South Africa. Vet. Parasitol. 157, 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.06.025
Mshelia, P.W., Kappmeyer, L., Johnson, W.C., Kudi, C.A., Oluyinka, O.O., Balogun, E.O., Richard, E.E., Onoja, E., Sears, K.P., Ueti, M.W., 2020. Molecular detection of Theileria species and Babesia caballi from horses in Nigeria. Parasitol. Res. 119, 2955–2963. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-020-06797-y
OIE., 2021. Terrestrial Animal Health Code Available online at: https://www.oie.int/en/what- we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access (accessed January 2022).
Oosthuizen, M.C., Zweygarth, E., Collins, N.E., Troskie, M., Penzhorn, B.L., 2008. Identification of a novel Babesia sp. from a sable antelope (Hippotragus niger Harris, 1838). J. Clin. Microbiol. 46, 2247–2251. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00167-08
Qablan, M.A., Sloboda, M., Jirků, M., Oborník, M., Dwairi, S., Amr, Z.S., Hořín, P., Lukeš, J., Modrý, D., 2012. Quest for the piroplasms in camels: Identification of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi in Jordanian dromedaries by PCR. Vet. Parasitol. 186, 456–460. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.11.070
Qablan, M.A., Oborník, M., Petrželková, K.J., Sloboda, M., Shudiefat, M.F., Hořín, P., Lukeš, J., Modrý, D., 2013. Infections by Babesia caballi and Theileria equi in Jordanian equids: epidemiology and genetic diversity. Parasitology 140, 1096–1103. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182013000486
Rapoport, A., Aharonson-Raz, K., Berlin, D., Tal, S., Gottlieb, Y., Klement, E., Steinman, A. 2014. Molecular characterization of the Babesia caballi rap-1 gene and epidemiological survey in horses in Israel. Infect. Genet. Evol. 23, 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2014.01.033
Rothschild, C.M., 2013. Equine piroplasmosis. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 33, 497–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2013.03.189
Salim, B., Bakheit, M.A., Kamau, J., Nakamura, I., Sugimoto, C., 2009. Nucleotide sequence heterogeneity in the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene within Theileria equi from horses in Sudan. Parasitol. Res. 106, 493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-009-1691-7
Santiapillai, C., Wijeyamohan, S., Ashby, K.R., 1999. The ecology of a free-living population of the ass (Equus africanus) at Kalpitiya, Sri Lanka. Biol. Conserv. 91, 43– 53.
Sears, K., Knowles, D., Dinkel, K., Mshelia, P.W., Onzere, C., Silva, M., and Fry, L., 2020. Imidocarb dipropionate lacks efficacy against Theileria haneyi and fails to consistently clear Theileria equi in horses co-infected with T. haneyi. Pathogens 9, 1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9121035
Scoles, G.A., Ueti, M.W., 2015. Vector ecology of equine piroplasmosis. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 60, 561–580. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-010814-021110
Sivakumar, T., Kothalawala, H., Abeyratne, S.A., Vimalakumar, S.C., Meewewa, A.S., Hadirampela, D.T., Puvirajan, T., Sukumar, S., Kuleswarakumar, K., Chandrasiri, A.D., Igarashi, I., Yokoyama, N., 2012. A PCR-based survey of selected Babesia and Theileria parasites in cattle in Sri Lanka. Vet. Parasitol. 190, 263–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.05.014
Sivakumar, T., Fujita, S., Tuvshintulga, B., Kothalawala, H., Silva, S.S.P., Yokoyama, N., 2019. Discovery of a new Theileria sp. closely related to Theileria annulata in cattle from Sri Lanka. Sci. Rep. 9, 16132. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52512-y
Tamzali, Y., 2013. Equine piroplasmosis: An updated review. Equine Vet. Educ. 25, 590–598. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/eve.12070
Tarav, M., Tokunaga, M., Kondo, T., Kato-Mori, Y., Hoshino, B., Dorj, U., Hagiwara, K., 2017. Problems in the protection of reintroduced przewalski’s Horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) caused by piroplasmosis. J. Wildl. Dis. 53, 911–915. https://doi.org/10.7589/2017-02-024
Tirosh-Levy, S., Gottlieb, Y., Arieli, O., Mazuz, M.L., King, R., Horowitz, I., Steinman, A., 2020b. Genetic characteristics of Theileria equi in zebras, wild and domestic donkeys in Israel and the Palestinian authority. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 11, 101286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.101286
Tirosh-Levy, S., Gottlieb, Y., Fry, L.M., Knowles, D.P., Steinman, A., 2020. Twenty years of equine piroplasmosis research: Global distribution, molecular diagnosis, and phylogeny. Pathogens 9, 926. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9110926
Tirosh-Levy, S., Steinman, A., Levy, H., Katz, Y., Shtilman, M., Gottlieb, Y., 2020a. Parasite load and genotype are associated with clinical outcome of piroplasm-infected equines in Israel. Parasit. Vectors 13, 267. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04133-y
Tirosh-Levy, S., Mazuz, M.L., Savitsky, I., Pinkas, D., Gottlieb, Y., Steinman, A., 2021. A serological and molecular prevalence of Babesia caballi in apparently healthy horses in Israel. Pathogens 10, 445. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040445
Ueti, M.W., Mealey, R.H., Kappmeyer, L.S., White, S.N., Kumpula-McWhirter, N., Pelzel, A.M., Grause, J.F., Bunn, T.O., Schwartz, A., Traub-Dargatz, J.L., Hendrickson, A., Espy, B., Guthrie, A.J., Fowler, W.K., Knowles, D.P., 2012. Re-emergence of the apicomplexan Theileria equi in the United States: elimination of persistent infection and transmission risk. PloS one. 7, 44713. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044713
Wise, L.N, Kappmeyer, L.S., Mealey, R.H., Knowles, D.P., 2013. Review of Equine Piroplasmosis. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 27, 1334–1346. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.12168
Wise, L.N., Pelzel-McCluskey, A.M., Mealey, R.H., Knowles, D.P., 2014. Equine piroplasmosis. Vet. Clin. North Am. Equine Pract. 30, 677–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.008
Zhyldyz, A., Sivakumar, T., Igarashi, I., Gunasekara, E., Kothalawala, H., Silva, S., Yokoyama, N., 2019. Epidemiological survey of Anaplasma marginale in cattle and buffalo in Sri Lanka. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 81, 1601–1605. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.19-0242
Zobba, R., Ardu, M., Niccolini, S., Chessa, B., Manna, L., Cocco, R., Pinna Parpaglia, M.L., 2008. Clinical and laboratory findings in equine piroplasmosis. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 28, 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2008.03.005