1 WHO. Global report on diabetes, 2016. Available: https://www.who. int/publications/i/item/9789241565257
2 Ministry of Health LaW. National health and nutrition survey, 2019. Available: http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/kenkou/kenkou_eiyou_ chousa.html
3 Ministry of Health LaW.. Patient survey, 2017. Available: https://www. mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/kanja/17/index.html
4 Hurst Y, Fukuda H. Effects of changes in eating speed on obesity in patients with diabetes: a secondary analysis of longitudinal health check-up data. BMJ Open 2018;8:e019589.
5 Kudo A, Asahi K, Satoh H, et al. Fast eating is a strong risk factor for new-onset diabetes among the Japanese general population. Sci Rep 2019;9:8210.
6 Ohkuma T, Fujii H, Iwase M, et al. Impact of eating rate on obesity and cardiovascular risk factors according to glucose tolerance status: the Fukuoka diabetes registry and the Hisayama study. Diabetologia 2013;56:70–7.
7 Otsuka R, Tamakoshi K, Yatsuya H, et al. Eating fast leads to obesity: findings based on self-administered questionnaires among middle-aged Japanese men and women. J Epidemiol 2006;16:117–24.
8 Radzevicienė L, Ostrauskas R. Fast eating and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a case-control study. Clin Nutr 2013;32:232–5.
9 Sakurai M, Nakamura K, Miura K, et al. Self-Reported speed of eating and 7-year risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in middle-aged Japanese men. Metabolism 2012;61:1566–71.
10 Takayama S, Akamine Y, Okabe T, et al. Rate of eating and body weight in patients with type 2 diabetes or hyperlipidaemia. J Int Med Res 2002;30:442–4.
11 Tanihara S, Imatoh T, Miyazaki M, et al. Retrospective longitudinal study on the relationship between 8-year weight change and current eating speed. Appetite 2011;57:179–83.
12 Zhu B, Haruyama Y, Muto T, et al. Association between eating speed and metabolic syndrome in a three-year population-based cohort study. J Epidemiol 2015;25:332–6.
13 Gudi SK. Eating speed and the risk of type 2 diabetes: explorations based on real-world evidence. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2020;25:80–3.
14 Boyko EJ, Leonetti DL, Bergstrom RW, et al. Low insulin secretion and high fasting insulin and C-peptide levels predict increased visceral adiposity. 5-year follow-up among initially nondiabetic Japanese-American men. Diabetes 1996;45:1010–5.
15 Otsuka R, Tamakoshi K, Yatsuya H, et al. Eating fast leads to insulin resistance: findings in middle-aged Japanese men and women. Prev Med 2008;46:154–9.
16 Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Ocana AM, et al. Metabolic effects of reducing rate of glucose ingestion by single bolus versus continuous sipping. Diabetes 1990;39:775–81.
17 Nagamine Y, Kondo N, Yokobayashi K, et al. Socioeconomic disparity in the prevalence of objectively evaluated diabetes among older Japanese adults: JAGES cross-sectional data in 2010. J Epidemiol 2019;29:295–301.
18 Health Service Bureau tMoH, Labour and Welfare. Standard health checkup and counseling guidance program (revised version), 2013. Available: http://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/seisakunitsuite/bunya/kenkou_ iryou/kenkou/seikatsu/
19 , et alCommittee of the Japan Diabetes Society on the Diagnostic Criteria of Diabetes Mellitus. Report of the Committee on the classification and diagnostic criteria of diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Investig 2010;1:2–20.
20 Center NS. e-Stat Kouseinenkin hoken Gyotaibetsu/Kibobetsu tekiyoujokyoshirabe (Survey on the Employees’ Pention Insurance by types of operation and scale), 2020. Available: https://www.e-stat. go.jp/stat-search/files?page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00450464& tstat=000001064003&cycle=0&tclass1=000001069717&cycle_facet= cycle&second=1&second2=1
21 Ogawa W, Miyazaki S. Diagnosis criteria for obesity and obesity disease. Health Evaluation and Promotion 2015;42:301–6.
22 Hamada Y, Kashima H, Hayashi N. The number of chews and meal duration affect diet-induced thermogenesis and splanchnic circulation. Obesity 2014;22:E62–9.
23 Mattes RD, Considine RV. Oral processing effort, appetite and acute energy intake in lean and obese adults. Physiol Behav 2013;120:173–81.
24 Krishnan S, Cozier YC, Rosenberg L, et al. Socioeconomic status and incidence of type 2 diabetes: results from the black women's health study. Am J Epidemiol 2010;171:564–70.
25 Tang M, Chen Y, Krewski D. Gender-Related differences in the association between socioeconomic status and self-reported diabetes. Int J Epidemiol 2003;32:381–5.
26 Agardh EE, Ahlbom A, Andersson T, et al. Explanations of socioeconomic differences in excess risk of type 2 diabetes in Swedish men and women. Diabetes Care 2004;27:716–21.
27 Nishi T, Babazono A, Maeda T. Association between income levels and irregular physician visits after a health checkup, and its consequent effect on glycemic control among employees: a retrospective propensity score-matched cohort study. J Diabetes Investig 2019;10:1372–81.
28 Berkman LF KI, Glymour MM. Social epidemiology. USA: Oxford University Press, 2014.
29 Nishi N, Horikawa C, Murayama N. Characteristics of food group intake by household income in the National health and nutrition survey, Japan. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2017;26:156–9.
30 Fukuda Y, Hiyoshi A. High quality nutrient intake is associated with higher household expenditures by Japanese adults. Biosci Trends 2012;6:176–82.
31 Hulshof KFAM, Brussaard JH, Kruizinga AG, et al. Socio-Economic status, dietary intake and 10 Y trends: the Dutch national food consumption survey. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003;57:128–37.
32 Mark S, Lambert M, O'Loughlin J, et al. Household income, food insecurity and nutrition in Canadian youth. Can J Public Health 2012;103:94–9.
33 Sausenthaler S, Standl M, Buyken A, et al. Regional and socioeconomic differences in food, nutrient and supplement intake in school-age children in Germany: results from the GINIplus and the LISAplus studies. Public Health Nutr 2011;14:1724–35.
34 Takahashi F, Hashimoto Y, Kawano R, et al. Eating fast is associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in men but not in women with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study. Nutrients 2020;12:2174.
35 Nagahama S, Kurotani K, Pham NM, et al. Self-Reported eating rate and metabolic syndrome in Japanese people: cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005241.
36 Sasaki S, Katagiri A, Tsuji T, et al. Self-Reported rate of eating correlates with body mass index in 18-y-old Japanese women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2003;27:1405–10.
37 Tayama J, Ogawa S, Takeoka A, et al. Item response theory-based validation of a short form of the eating behavior scale for Japanese adults. Medicine 2017;96:e8334.
38 Ministry of Health LaW. Survey on workers who changed jobs, 2015. Available: https://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/list/6-18.html