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Study on macro and microplastics debris in Indonesian water: Current condition and problem

Muhammad Reza Cordova 東京農業大学

2021.09.24

概要

1. BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE
Chapter 1. Introduction and Overview of the Study
　Since the early 1950s, plastic production has risen exponentially and reached 368 million metric tons in 2019, and this does not include synthetic fibers, which accounted for 61 million tons in 2015. Plastics demand is projected to continue to grow in the near future, with production levels likely to double by 2025. Inadequate plastic waste disposal has contributed to increased freshwater, estuarine, and marine pollution. Around 19 million to 23 million tons of plastic waste reached the oceans in 2016, and marine plastic debris is forecasted could reach 53 million tons by 2030. Indonesia's vast coastline, huge population, and a high percentage of unmanaged waste are recipes that add substantial quantities of land-derived debris to oceans. Indonesia is considered the world's second-largest contributor to oceans after China. In response, Indonesia developed a national action plan to tackle marine plastic debris between 2017-2025 through several measures. The Indonesian government has pledged to allocate up to $1 billion annually to reduce 70% of plastic waste in the Indonesian seas by 2025, to preserve the environment. The middle and long-term fate of macro and microplastics in the environment is unknown, as is its abundance and distribution in coastal ecosystems, particularly in Indonesia. Science is the key to getting the right alternative for managing plastic debris. Thus, monitoring data is key in formulating effective strategies to reduce land-derived debris. The aim of this research is to provide baseline data of plastics debris in Indonesian Sea, particularly to macro and microplastics. This data will be useful for the management of marine litter as has been stated in Indonesia's Presidential Decree No. 83 on Marine Debris Management. The study will address the following objectives (1) to provide in situ monitoring data on sources and inflow of debris from major Indonesian cities with high population density and river discharge as a baseline to better formulate environmental policies in reducing marine debris; and (2) to investigate the abundance and distribution of microplastic from Indonesian marine ecosystem (in the water, sediment, and the marine organism).
　To achieve the study's objectives, two studies were conducted to answer the first research lines and four studies to the second research lines. The first two studies are spatially, and temporally comprehensive marine debris monitoring in major Indonesian rivers carried out at river outlets leading to Jakarta Bay. Furthermore, four studies related to microplastics were carried out on the coast of Surabaya, mangrove areas in Muara Angke Wildlife Reserve, Sekotong coral reef area, and microplastic ingestion in blue panchax fish (Aplocheilus sp.).

2. RIVERINE PLASTIC DEBRIS TRANSPORT
Chapter 2. Marine Debris Inflow from the Greater Jakarta Area, Indonesia
　The first land-derived debris monitoring was performed between June 2015 and June 2016, characterizing major sources and monthly variation of marine debris at nine river outlets in Jakarta Bay, Indonesia. The nine river outlets are from west to east: Dadap River in Tangerang, Angke, Pluit, Ciliwung, Kali Item, Koja, Cilincing, and Marunda Rivers in the capital city of Jakarta, and Bekasi River in Bekasi. Land-derived debris was collected using a 75 m-long and 1.5 m-deep net with a 5 cm mesh scale. River outlets have widths between 18-64.9 m or below our sampling net range. The net was installed 15 minutes along the river width and repeated 3-6 times depending on the river discharge. The debris then quantified by abundance, using a modified list of the NOAA Marine Debris Program datasheet, was classified into six types of debris (plastics, metal, glass, wood/paper, cloth/fiber, and others) and 19 categories of plastics.
　From first monitoring land-derived debris, it is found that plastics are the most common debris entering Jakarta Bay, comprising 59% (abundance) or 37% (weight) of total debris. Styrofoam dominated plastic debris, demonstrating the importance of plastic and styrofoam elimination. Higher debris releases during the rainy season (December-February) reinforce the need to intensify clean-up activities. An average daily release of 97,098 ± 28,932 products or 23 ± 7.10 tons in Jakarta Bay was measured with slightly lower capital inputs than neighboring municipalities. Field monitoring data in the plastics group yields a daily plastic debris release of 8.32 ± 2.44 tons from the Greater Jakarta area, 8-16 times less than global model estimates. A simple explanation is that rivers in the study area (in Jakarta) have floating net booms in place that reduce debris releases, one of the factors that are not captured in the global-scale models. However, there is a possibility of higher debris release in the field relative to global projections in other cities, given varying levels of local commitment to minimize land-derived debris. Plastics are the most common debris entering Jakarta Bay combined with global marine debris models, field sampling at river sources serves as ground-truth evidence to refine global forecasts by taking local strategies in place to minimize marine debris.

Chapter 3. Marine Debris Inflow from Two Rivers Outlet into Jakarta Bay during COVID-19 Pandemic
　In March–April 2020, the measurements from the first monitoring were repeated in two out of nine river outlets (Cilincing and Marunda Rivers) in Jakarta Bay to determine the amount of debris entering the river's marine environment outlet in Jakarta as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the lockdown situation, the analysis could not be repeated in all nine river outlets. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the abundance of daily debris releases at two sampling sites increased by 5%. At both locations, daily debris releases decreased by 23% in March from 2.30 to 1.78 tons per day and by 28% in April from 2.19 to 1.58 tons per day. Plastics, accounted for 43-47% by abundance or 50-62% by weight, remained the dominant debris entering the Bay of Jakarta in March-April 2020. The study data demonstrated the unprecedented presence and prevalence of personal protection equipments (PPEs) during the pandemic. The PPEs accounted for 16% of the river debris collected, were not present before the pandemic. Increased lightweight plastic-made PPEs that could move distances in environments with health and environmental issues underline the need for domestic PPE waste management, which varies from regulated and controlled medical facilities sources. Overall, monitoring data on major sources and monthly variations in land-derived debris release to Jakarta Bay advise stakeholders and policymakers to prioritize various forms of debris, plastics groups, and months of the year to eliminate land-derived debris from the Greater Jakarta area more effectively. Furthermore, data could help to evaluate efforts over recent years to minimize land-derived debris across riverine channels.

3. QUANTIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROPLASTICS IN MARINE ECOSYSTEM
　Microplastic (small plastic particle < 5mm) is recognized as an emerging problem in oceans and must be tackled through an intergovernmental process. It is important to develop comprehensive microplastic pollution data at different locations and environmental matrices, particularly in Indonesia's marine ecosystem. Various effects in marine environments and coastal fisheries, aquaculture, and human health will occur through microplastic contaminated seafood consumption. However, data on plastic pollution, particularly microplastic, is still inadequate, and research remains challenging due to limited equipment and a wide marine environment in the Indonesian Seas.
　The sediment, water, and fish sample microplastic extraction procedures were adapted from the Guidelines for Harmonizing Ocean Surface Microplastic Monitoring Methods by implementing a modified flotation method and wet peroxide oxidation procedures. Possible particles had the following characteristics: particle size less than 5mm, homogeneous color, no cellular network, and unsegmented and unbranched. The shape composition, the counted microplastic, was divided into four categories: fragments, fibers, granules, and foam. The samples were categorized into different size classes. The recovered microplastic polymer forms were then described using an ATR FT-IR (Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared) spectrometer.

Chapter 4. Abundance and Characteristics of Floating Microplastics in the Northern Coastal Waters of Surabaya, Indonesia
　Floating microplastic in northern coastal waters of Surabaya was taken using a sterile HDPE bottle. Microplastic concentration in Surabaya's northern coastal waters ranged from 0.38 to 0.61 N/L, averaging 0.49 N/L. The highest microplastic abundance was obtained at the nearest ground station and, in turn, near the source of microplastic pollutant point. The lowest abundance was found in the mainland's farthest station. The dominance of foams and fragments in Surabaya's northern coastal waters showed that water microplastics result from a waste of population activity. The size ranges of microplastics 500-1000 μm (48.54%) and 300-500 μm (45.48%) indicate the state of microplastic particles that have not been deteriorated for a long time. Polystyrene was dominant relative to other forms of polymers, possibly due to the deterioration of the group's extensive waste activities (secondary microplastics).

Chapter 5. Characterization of Microplastics in Mangrove Sediment of Muara Angke Wildlife Reserve, Indonesia
　Sediment samples in Muara Angke Wildlife Reserve were taken in the mangroves' inner and outer layers. Microplastics were found in all the stations in mangrove sediment of Muara Angke Wildlife Reserve, with an average of 28.09±10.28 particles per kg of dry sediment (n/kg). Sediments in the outside mangrove area contained more microplastics than the inside area. Foam form was the most dominant in all the samples and was found more abundant on the outside. More than half of microplastics were of size <1000 µm, and nearly 50% were polystyrenes. This polymer is widely used for food packaging, which is prone to be fragmented. Polypropylene and polyethylene form another 50% of microplastics, widely used for textiles and fishing gears. As Jakarta is the largest city in Indonesia, this microplastic dataset may be the benchmark for other mangroves around the country.

Chapter 6. Microplastic Pollution Distribution in Coral Reefs Sediment, Case Study Sekotong, West Nusa Tenggara
　Sediment samples in Sekotong by diving in the coral reef area. Microplastics concentration in coral reefs sediment in Sekotong ranged from 35 to 77 particles/kg, with an average of 48.3±13.98 particles/kg. The highest concentration was located in Gili Island's southwest (77 particles/kg). The microplastic types found were foam (41.20%), fragment (32.51%), granule (22.77%), and fiber (3.52%). The most frequent microplastics size ranged from more than 1000 μm and was followed by a size range of 500-1000 μm. Polymer analysis showed that microplastic found were composed of polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene. This type of polymers indicates that the primary source of microplastics in the Sekotong coral reef sediment was styrofoam, food and beverage packages, and fishing devices.

Chapter 7. Microplastics Ingestion by Blue Panchax Fish (Aplocheilus sp.) from Ciliwung Estuary, Jakarta, Indonesia
　Aplocheilus sp. samples were collected randomly in North Jakarta's Ciliwung estuary and coastal region using a larva net. Moreover, floating microplastic in Aplocheilus sp. habitat (Ciliwung River Estuary and North Jakarta Coast) was taken using sterile manta trawl net. Different forms and sizes of microplastic were contained in the river flow of Ciliwung River Estuary (9.37±1.37 particles/m3), North Jakarta coastal waters (8.48±9.43 particles/m3), and 75% of Aplocheilus sp. (1.97 particles/individual). The microplastic size in Aplocheilus sp. was relatively small, ranging from 300 to 500 μm. This small size suggests that fish have trouble distinguishing between their food and microplastics. Furthermore, the plastics were able to contain other contaminants.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
Chapter 8. Conclusion and Recommendation
　The importance of long-term marine debris monitoring in major Indonesian cities provides critical information to minimize land-derived debris in Oceans. Plastics originating from land activities are predicted to become microplastic because the dominant macro- and microplastic forms found are plastic single-use types. Microplastic was found in all areas, in water, sediment, and selected marine organisms. Microplastics have pervaded relatively pristine habitats, including coral reef and mangrove areas, which may conflict with commercial fishing and aquaculture. Marine plastic debris, including microplastic, tends to reduce commercial fisheries and aquaculture production profitability through physical obstruction and destruction. Many marine species, including those critical to the food supply, ingest microplastic. Humans eat marine plastic when the entire body, including the gut, is eaten, e.g., shellfish, sea snails, and anchovies. Food chain plastic contamination puts the fish product at risk of reduced reproductive success and growth, threatening fish stocks. Commercial fisheries industry sustainability, competitiveness, profitability, and safety are highly vulnerable to the effects of marine plastics, particularly with climate change and overfishing. Detailed research on the impact of plastic consumption on marine organisms, biomagnification, exposure, chemical toxicity, and socio-economy is recommended. Plastic pollution impacts coral reefs and mangrove economic viability, and thus preserving and protecting these areas will offer high economic benefits to local people using the marine and coastal ecosystem. However, plastics' possible social and economic effects on the marine and coastal ecosystem remains an open question. Investing in testing and analysis to resolve information gaps is, therefore, crucial. It is strongly suggested that plastic waste management be strengthened and that an environmentally friendly material be invented to replace synthetic plastics in the near future. A more reliable estimation of marine debris is a step towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals 14.1 indicator to prevent and substantially reduce marine pollution, including marine debris, especially from land-based activities, by 2030. Accordingly, Indonesia's government has developed a National Action Plan, a policy action to tackle marine plastic debris. Until 2025, Indonesia's government will allocate up to $1 billion per year to eliminate about 70 percent of plastic waste at sea. Other plastics waste sources, however, also lack Indonesia's government regulation. In order to quantify the effects of debris along with the Indonesian marine ecosystem, comprehensive studies, including large-scale, long-term, and detailed monitoring processes, are required.
　It is imperative to invest in monitoring and research to address knowledge gaps and future subjects, e.g., (1) to understand the sources, pathways, and ecological impacts of marine debris using long-term field monitoring data; (2) to investigate the abundance and impact of microplastic from selected fish and invertebrate macrobenthic species in the Indonesian marine ecosystem; (3) to provide advice related to the management of plastic pollution in Indonesia; and (4) to understand societal and economic impacts of plastics on in Indonesian marine ecosystem.

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Study on macro and microplastics debris in Indonesian water: Current condition and problem

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Study on macro and microplastics debris in Indonesian water: Current condition and problem

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