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Pathways, timescales and transport of the Indonesian Throughflow, and water mass transformation in the Indonesian Seas

ISKANDAR Mochamad Riza 東北大学

2020.09.25

概要

The tropical Indonesian Seas play an important role in the climate system. There is a central water flow in this sea called the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF). ITF is recognized as one of the important currents in the global thermohaline circulation that connects the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. The heat and freshwater carried by the ITF is identified to have an impact on the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Within the Indonesian Seas, the characteristics of the Pacific water, marked by the large salinity variations in the vertical direction, are modified to form nearly isohaline profile. The water masses from the Indonesian Seas can be distinguished in the Indian Ocean as low salinity water. Existing knowledge about the ITF is still limited, especially on the influence of small-scale ocean features on the main ITF routes. In addition, the transformation of thermocline water masses that turn into isohaline profiles is still not fully understood. The linkages between the water masses from the Indonesian Seas and the atmospheric flux associated with global hydrological cycle is also needed to investigate. This thesis aims to answer three main research questions: how the high- frequency flow variabilities affect the ITF’s residence time and path, how the saline thermocline Pacific water masses are transformed into fresher water, and how the properties of some of the water masses have changed in response to the atmospheric changes in recent years. The knowledge of the oceanic features in the Indonesian Seas is important not only for the current study of the ITF but also for future predictions in terms of physical conditions and biogeochemical signatures of the Indonesian Seas.

　Chapter 2 examines the effects of the high-frequency flow variability (HFFV) on the two main ITF routes. High-frequency flow defined in this study is the flow component that has a time scale of more than a day but shorter than a month. Comprehensively, the primary objective of this study is to quantify the effects of this HFFV on the pathways, transports, and in particular time scales of the ITF within the Indonesian archipelago. To achieve this goal, this study uses the daily and monthly fields of ocean model data set OFES2 (Ocean General Circulation Model for the Earth Simulator ver- sion 2) applied in a Lagrangian particle tracking experiment. The results of this study indicate that the Lagrangian particles capture the path of high-frequency activities in the daily fields in contrast to the monthly fields that show the straightforward path of particles. The particle’s movement due to the high-frequency activity generates a smaller number of particles (and transport) when crossing the particular seas. This study provides an important contribution to research on the small-time scale phenom- ena along the ITF by demonstrating the differences in the high-frequency flow between the western and eastern routes of ITF. The largest difference of kinetic energy between daily and monthly fields is found in the Sulawesi Sea, which indicates that the small- time scale activity is more pronounced in the western route of ITF. It is also shown that in the short time periods (2 years), the western route of ITF transfers Pacific water mainly to the thermocline in contrast to the eastern route that transfers the water from Pacific mainly to the intermediate layer. The time needed to fill the water mass in the Makassar Strait of the western route from the inflow of ITF in the Pacific Ocean is about ∼3 months. The similar time (∼3 months to ∼1 year) is also needed to fill the water mass in the Lifamatola Strait of the eastern route.

　Chapter 3 focuses on the water mass transformation in the thermocline where the high salinity Pacific water is eroded along the main routes of the ITF. The present study is designed to focus on the water masses in the Indonesian Seas especially in the thermocline. This study found that, generally, the erosion of high salinity water in the thermocline is the notable feature of the water mass transformation in each route of the ITF. Most of the regions in the Indonesian Seas experience high vertical mixing especially from the tidal mixing in some of the locations over the rough topography. During two years of tracking periods, the thermocline water that consists of high salinity water from the Pacific already transformed into the fresher characteristic. There is an erosion of North Pacific Tropical Water (NPTW) in the western route and South Pacific Subtropical Water (SPSW) in the eastern route. The erosion of this high salinity water in the western route occurs by mixing with surface water and the portion of intermediate water (North Pacific Intermediate Water/NPIW). In contrast, the erosion of high salinity water in the eastern route is mostly dominated by a mixing with surface water. Even though intermediate water has a much larger portion entering the eastern route, it does not mix significantly with thermocline water. The erosion of the high salinity water in each route of ITF is mostly dominated by the tidal mixing. Tidal mixing has a significant influence on changes in thermocline salinity where the salinity becomes fresher. The important locations of salinity changes in the western route are the entrance gate of ITF near the Mindanao Island, Labani Channel in the southern Makassar Strait, Flores Sea, and several locations before outflowing to the Indian Ocean. On the other hand, in the eastern route, the important locations of salinity transformation are in the entrance gate of ITF to the Halmahera Sea, Maluku Sea, Lifamatola Strait, and surrounding Seram Island.

　Chapter 4 analyzes the water mass trends in the inflow and outflow of ITF during 2004-2015. Based on the Argo data vertically gridded on the isopycnal coordinate, NPTW and SPSW in the inflow of ITF become saltier (warmer), and NPIW and Antarctic Intermediate Water/AAIW become fresher (cooler). In contrast, Indonesian Upper Water/IUW in the outflow of ITF become fresher (cooler), opposite to the salinification (warming) trend of Indonesian Intermediate Water/IIW. In addition, the water mass from the Indian Ocean also becomes saltier (warmer). In recent years, there is a negative trend of E − P (evaporation minus precipitation) in the maritime continent. This indicates that the Indonesian Seas receive large freshwater input from the atmosphere. This condition contributes to freshening of the IUW in the upper layer. On the other hand, in this study, the ocean process that contributes to the salinification of IIW is estimated by vertical mixing entirely. The salinification of Indian Ocean water contributes to the salinification of IIW, if it is assumed that there are negligible IIW changes in the Indonesian Seas.

　The two main routes of ITF from the Pacific Ocean have been known for more than a decade but poorly described in terms of their small-scale features such as the flow variability and mixing. The findings in this study enhance our understanding of the real ocean motion in the western and eastern routes of ITF by examining the small-scale flow. The transformation of the thermocline water in this study also provides information on how the contribution of water masses from the Pacific Ocean in each ITF routes generates isohaline pattern in the Indonesian Seas. Furthermore, by documenting and analyzing salinity variations in the tropical Indo-Pacific, this study contributed to understand how changes/variability in the hydrological cycle affects ocean environment. The findings of this study provide an important basis for a better understanding of the role of ITF in the climate system.

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