[1] Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Truitt G, et al. CBTRUS Statistical Report: Primary Brain and Other Central Nervous System Tumors Diagnosed in the United States in 2011-2015. Neuro Oncol 2018; 20 Suppl 4:iv1.
[2] Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Fulop J, et al. CBTRUS Statistical Report: Primary Brain and Central Nervous System Tumors Diagnosed in the United States in 2008-2012. Neuro Oncol 2015; 17 Suppl 4:iv1.
[3] Nakamura H, Makino K, Yano S, et al. Epidemiological study of primary intracranial tumors: a regional survey in Kumamoto prefecture in southern Japan—20-year study. Int J Clin Oncol. 2011; 16:314-21.
[4] Chang SM, Parney IF, Huang W, et al. Patterns of care for adults with newly diagnosed malignant glioma. JAMA 2005; 293:557.
[5] UpToDate. Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and initial surgical management of high- grade gliomas. Available at: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-presentation- diagnosis-and-initial-surgical-management-of-high-grade- gliomas?search=glioblastoma&topicRef=5207&source=see_link#H1473706376. Accessed September 1, 2020.
[6] David NL, Arie P, Guido R, et al. The 2016 World Health Organization Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: a summary. Acta Neuropathol 2016; Jun;131(6):803-20.
[7] Hartmann C, Hentschel B, Tatagiba M, et al. Molecular markers in low-grade gliomas: predictive or prognostic? Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17:4588.
[8] Nobusawa S, Watanabe T, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H. IDH1 mutations as molecular signature and predictive factor of secondary glioblastomas. Clin Cancer Res 2009; 15:6002.
[9] Yan H, Parsons DW, Jin G, et al. IDH1 and IDH2 mutations in gliomas. N Engl J Med 2009; 360:765.
[10] Stupp R, Mason WP, van den Bent MJ, et al. Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide for glioblastoma. The New England journal of medicine. 2005; 352: 987-96.
[11] Brown TJ, Brennan MC, Li M, et al. Association of the Extent of Resection With Survival in Glioblastoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Oncol 2016; 2:1460.
[12] Sanai N, Mirzadeh Z, Berger MS. Functional outcome after language mapping for glioma resection. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:18.
[13] Woodworth GF, McGirt MJ, Samdani A, et al. Frameless image-guided stereotactic brain biopsy procedure: diagnostic yield, surgical morbidity, and comparison with the frame- based technique. J Neurosurg 2006; 104:233.
[14] Zhao H, Wang S, Song C, et al. The prognostic value of MGMT promoter status by pyrosequencing assay for glioblastoma patients’ survival: a meta-analysis. World J Surg Oncol 2016; 14:261.
[15] Zarnett OJ, Sahgal A, Gosio J, et al. Treatment of elderly patients with glioblastoma: a systematic evidence-based analysis. JAMA Neurol 2015; 72:589.
[16] Westphal M, Hilt DC, Bortey E, et al. A phase 3 trial of local chemotherapy with biodegradable carmustine (BCNU) wafers (Gliadel wafers) in patients with primary malignant glioma. Neuro Oncol 2003; 5:79.
[17] Chinot OL, Wick W, Mason W, et al. Bevacizumab plus radiotherapy-temozolomide for newly diagnosed glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 2014; 370:709.
[18] Gilbert MR, Dignam JJ, Armstrong TS, et al. A randomized trial of bevacizumab for newly diagnosed glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 2014; 370:699.
[19] Wick W, Gorlia T, Bendszus M, et al. Lomustine and Bevacizumab in Progressive Glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 2017; 377:1954.
[20] Jiro Akimoto, Jo Haraoka, Katsuo Aizawa. Preliminary clinical report on safety and efficacy of photodynamic therapy using talaporfin sodium for malignant gliomas. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2012 Jun;9(2):91-9.
[21] Muragaki Y, Akimoto J, Maruyama T, et al. Phase II clinical study on intraoperative photodynamic therapy with talaporfin sodium and semiconductor laser in patients with malignant brain tumors. J Neurosurg. 2013 Oct;119(4):845-52.
[22] Kirson ED, Dbalý V, Tovarys F, et al. Alternating electric fields arrest cell proliferation in animal tumor models and human brain tumors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:10152.
[23] Stupp R, Taillibert S, Kanner A, et al. Effect of Tumor-Treating Fields Plus Maintenance Temozolomide vs Maintenance Temozolomide Alone on Survival in Patients With Glioblastoma: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017; 318: 2306-16.
[24] The committee of Brain Tumor Registry of Japan. Report of Brain Tumor Registry of Japan (2005–2008) 14th Edition. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2017; (Suppl 1): 9–102.
[25] 植木敬介. 膠芽腫はなぜ難治なのか?―克服への可能性―. Jpn J Neurosurg (Tokyo) 2020. 29: 198–203.
[26] Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell. 2011; 144: 646-74.
[27] Quail DF, Joyce JA. The Microenvironmental Landscape of Brain Tumors. Cancer Cell. 2017; 31: 326-41.
[28] Chen DS, Mellman I. Oncology meets immunology: the cancer-immunity cycle. Immunity. 2013; 39: 1-10.
[29] Brown NF, Carter TJ, Ottaviani D, Mulholland P. Harnessing the immune system in glioblastoma. British journal of cancer. 2018; 119: 1171-81.
[30] Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 2017.
[31] Woroniecka KI, Rhodin KE, Chongsathidkiet P, et al. T-cell Dysfunction in Glioblastoma: Applying a New Framework. Clin Cancer Res. 2018 Aug 15;24(16):3792- 3802.
[32] Berghoff AS, Kiesel B, Widhalm G, et al. Programmed death ligand 1 expression and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in glioblastoma. Neuro Oncol. 2015; 17: 1064-75.
[33] Xue S, Hu M, Iyer V, Yu J. Blocking the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in glioma: a potential new treatment strategy. J Hematol Oncol. 2017; 10: 81.
[34] Julie B, Karen LR, Paul B, et al. Nivolumab versus Docetaxel in Advanced Squamous-Cell Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 9;373(2):123-35.
[35] Caroline R, Jacob S, Georgina VL, et al. Pembrolizumab versus Ipilimumab in Advanced Melanoma. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jun 25;372(26):2521-32.
[36] David AR, Alba AB, Antonio O, et al. Effect of Nivolumab vs Bevacizumab in Patients With Recurrent Glioblastoma: The CheckMate 143 Phase 3 Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Oncol. 2020 Jul; 6(7): 1–8.
[37] Bas W, Pim J F, Peter AESS, et al. Immunotherapy in Glioblastoma: Current Shortcomings and Future Perspectives. Cancers (Basel). 2020 Mar; 12(3): 751.
[38] Filley AC, Henriquez M, Dey M. Recurrent glioma clinical trial, CheckMate-143: the game is not over yet. Oncotarget. 2017 Oct 6;8(53):91779-91794.
[39] Leandro MC, Mitchell JM, Timothy AM, et al. Burden of Nonsynonymous Mutations among TCGA Cancers and Candidate Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Responses. Cancer Res. 2016 Jul 1;76(13):3767-72.
[40] Janeway CA Jr, Travers P, Walport M, et al. Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease (5th ed.). NY: Garland Science, 2001.
[41] Melanie DS, Zhen Z, Axel M, et al. Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back. Physiol Rev. 2019 Jan 1;99(1):21-78.
[42] Kaneda Y, Nakajima T, Nishikawa T, et al. Hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ) envelope vector as a versatile gene delivery system. Mol Ther. 2002; 6: 219-26.
[43] Kawaguchi Y, Miyamoto Y, Inoue T, Kaneda Y. Efficient eradication of hormone- resistant human prostate cancers by inactivated Sendai virus particle. Int J Cancer. 2009; 124: 2478-87.
[44] Kurooka M, Kaneda Y. Inactivated Sendai virus particles eradicate tumors by inducing immune responses through blocking regulatory T cells. Cancer research. 2007; 67: 227-36.
[45] Fujihara A, Kurooka M, Miki T, Kaneda Y. Intratumoral injection of inactivated Sendai virus particles elicits strong antitumor activity by enhancing local CXCL10 expression and systemic NK cell activation. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2008; 57: 73-84.
[46] Saga K, Kaneda Y. Oncolytic Sendai virus-based virotherapy for cancer: recent advances. Oncolytic Virother. 2015; 4: 141-7.
[47] Matsuda M, Yamamoto T, Matsumura A, et al. Highly efficient eradication of intracranial glioblastoma using Eg5 siRNA combined with HVJ envelope. Gene Ther. 2009 Dec;16(12):1465-76.
[48] Sampetrean O, Saga I, Nakanishi M, et al. Invasion precedes tumor mass formation in a malignant brain tumor model of genetically modified neural stem cells. Neoplasia. 2011; 13: 784-91.
[49] Kanda Y. Investigation of the freely available easy-to-use software ‘EZR’ for medical statistics. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2013; 48: 452-8.
[50] 秋元治朗. Brain tumor interface の病理像 ―Make the invisible visible―. Jpn J Neurosurg (Tokyo) 2020. 29: 475–485.
[51] Wilson CB. Glioblastoma: the past, the present, and the future. Clin Neurosurg. 1992;38:32-48.
[52] Dandy WE. Removal of right cerebral hemisphere for certain tumors with hemiplegia: Preliminary report. JAMA. 1925; 90: 823-825.
[53] Tanaka M, Ino Y, Nakagawa K, et al. High-dose conformal radiotherapy for supratentorial malignant glioma: a historical comparison. Lancet Oncol. 2005; 6:953-960.
[54] Weller M, Butowski N, Tran DD, et al. Rindopepimut with temozolomide for patients with newly diagnosed, EGFRvIII-expressing glioblastoma (ACT IV): a randomised, double-blind, international phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2017 Oct;18(10):1373-1385.
[55] Nduom EK, Wei J, Yaghi NK, et al. PD-L1 expression and prognostic impact in glioblastoma. Neuro Oncol. 2016 Feb;18(2):195-205.
[56] Wang ZL, Li GZ, Wang QW, et al. PD-L2 expression is correlated with the molecular and clinical features of glioma, and acts as an unfavorable prognostic factor. Oncoimmunology. 2018 Nov 20;8(2):e1541535.
[57] Bristol-Myers Squibb, Press Release 09/05/2019. Bristol-Myers Squibb Provides Update on Phase 3 Opdivo (nivolumab) CheckMate -548 Trial in Patients with Newly Diagnosed MGMT-Methylated Glioblastoma Multiforme.
[58] Bristol-Myers Squibb, Press Release 05/09/2019. Bristol-Myers Squibb Announces Phase 3 CheckMate -498 Study Did Not Meet Primary Endpoint of Overall Survival with Opdivo (nivolumab) Plus Radiation in Patients with Newly Diagnosed MGMT-Unmethylated Glioblastoma Multiforme.
[59] Alexandrov LB, Nik-Zainal S, Wedge DC, et al. Signatures of mutational processes in human cancer. Nature. 2013; 500: 415-21.
[60] Bonneville R, Krook MA, Kautto EA et al. Landscape of Microsatellite Instability Across 39 Cancer Types. JCO Precis Oncol. 2017;2017:PO.17.00073.
[61] Jiang H, Rivera-Molina Y, Gomez-Manzano C, et al. Oncolytic Adenovirus and Tumor-Targeting Immune Modulatory Therapy Improve Autologous Cancer Vaccination. Cancer research. 2017; 77: 3894-907.
[62] Chen CY, Hutzen B, Wedekind MF, Cripe TP. Oncolytic virus and PD-1/PD-L1 blockade combination therapy. Oncolytic Virother. 2018; 7: 65-77.
[63] Gregory TM, Stephen PS, Li-Ping W, et al. Tumor endothelium FasL establishes a selective immune barrier promoting tolerance in tumors. Nature Medicine. 2014; vol. 20, p607–615.
[64] Wallin JJ, Bendell JC, Funke R, et al. Atezolizumab in combination with bevacizumab enhances antigen-specific T-cell migration in metastatic renal cell carcinoma. Nat Commun. 2016 Aug 30;7:12624.
[65] Taggart D, Andreou T, Scott KJ, et al. Anti-PD-1/anti-CTLA-4 efficacy in melanoma brain metastases depends on extracranial disease and augmentation of CD8(+) T cell trafficking. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018; 115: E1540-E9.
[66] Peng W, Liu C, Xu C, et al. PD-1 blockade enhances T-cell migration to tumors by elevating IFN-gamma inducible chemokines. Cancer research. 2012; 72: 5209-18.
[67] Zhou L, Chong MM, Littman DR. Plasticity of CD4+ T Cell Lineage Differentiation. Immunity. 2009 May;30(5):646-55.
[68] Hwang SM, Sharma G, Verma R, et al. Inflammation-induced Id2 promotes plasticity in regulatory T cells. Nat Commun. 2018 Nov 9;9(1):4736.
[69] Chaurasiya S, Chen NG, Fong Y. Oncolytic viruses and immunity. Curr Opin Immunol. 2018 Apr;51:83-90.
[70] Mitchell LA, Lopez Espinoza F, Mendoza D, et al. Toca 511 gene transfer and treatment with the prodrug, 5-fluorocytosine, promotes durable antitumor immunity in a mouse glioma model. Neuro Oncol. 2017 Jul 1;19(7):930-939.
[71] 肺がん患者におけるPD-L1 検査の手引き 第 2.0 版. 日本肺癌学会バイオマーカー委員会. 2020 年 10 月 27 日
[72] Angel Garcia-Diaz, Daniel Sanghoon Shin, Blanca Homet Moreno, et al. Interferon Receptor Signaling Pathways Regulating PD-L1 and PD-L2 Expression. Cell Rep. 2017 May 9;19(6):1189-1201.
[73] Qian J, Wang C, Wang B, et al. The IFN-gamma/PD-L1 axis between T cells and tumor microenvironment: hints for glioma anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy. J Neuroinflammation. 2018; 15: 290.
[74] Sugiura D, Maruhashi T, Okazaki IM, et al. Restriction of PD-1 function by cis-PD- L1/CD80 interactions is required for optimal T cell responses. Science. 2019 May 10;364(6440):558-566.
[75] Sun BL, Wang LH, Yang T, et al. Lymphatic drainage system of the brain: A novel target for intervention of neurological diseases. Prog Neurobiol. 2018 Apr-May;163-164:118- 143.
[76] Kumagai S, Togashi Y, Kamada T, et al. The PD-1 expression balance between effector and regulatory T cells predicts the clinical efficacy of PD-1 blockade therapies. Nat immnol. 2020 Nov;21(11):1346-1358.
[77] Hsu J, Hodgins JJ, Marathe M, et al. Contribution of NK cells to immunotherapy mediated by PD-1/PD-L1 blockade. J Clin Invest. 2018; 128: 4654-68.
[78] Dunai C, Murphy WJ. NK cells for PD-1/PD-L1 blockade immunotherapy: pinning down the NK cell. J Clin Invest. 2018; 128: 4251-3.
[79] Kim JE, Patel MA, Mangraviti A, et al. Combination Therapy with Anti-PD-1, Anti- TIM-3, and Focal Radiation Results in Regression of Murine Gliomas. Clin Cancer Res. 2017; 23: 124-36.
[80] Kamada T, Togashi Y, Tay C, et al. PD-1(+) regulatory T cells amplified by PD-1 blockade promote hyperprogression of cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019; 116: 9999- 10008.
[81] Dovedi SJ, Adlard AL, Lipowska-Bhalla G, et al. Acquired resistance to fractionated radiotherapy can be overcome by concurrent PD-L1 blockade. Cancer research. 2014; 74: 5458-68.
[82] Fujita K, Kato T, Hatano K, et al. Intratumoral and s.c. injection of inactivated hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (GEN0101) in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Sci. 2020; 111: 1692-8.
[83] Kiyohara E, Tanemura A, Nishioka M, et al. Intratumoral injection of hemagglutinating virus of Japan-envelope vector yielded an antitumor effect for advanced melanoma: a phase I/Iia clinical study. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2020; 69: 1131-40.
[84] Taeko Matsushima-Miyagi, Koji Hatano, Motonari Nomura, et al. TRAIL and Noxa are selectively upregulated in prostate cancer cells downstream of the RIG-I/MAVS signaling pathway by nonreplicating Sendai virus particles. Clin Cancer Res. 2012 Nov 15;18(22):6271-83.
[85] Nomura M, Ueno A, Saga K, Fukuzawa M, Kaneda Y. Accumulation of cytosolic calcium induces necroptotic cell death in human neuroblastoma. Cancer research. 2014; 74: 1056-66.
[86] Ene CI, Kreuser SA, Jung M, et al. Anti-PD-L1 antibody direct activation of macrophages contributes to a radiation-induced abscopal response in glioblastoma. Neuro Oncol. 2020 May 15;22(5):639-651.